Common name for several types of sales where the price is neither set nor arrived at by negotiation, but is discovered through the process of competitive and open bidding. The two major types of auction are :
(1) Forward auction in which several buyers bid for one seller's good(s)
(2) Reverse auction in which several sellers bid for one buyer's order.
An auction is complete (and a binding contract is created) when a bid is accepted by the seller or the buyer (as the case may be). The internet age has transformed auction into a truly open process in which thousands of goods (from books to ships) and services (from air travel to legal advice) may be offered for bidding by anyone from anywhere and at any time on websites such as eBay.com. Internet auctions are an important aspect of electronic commerce.
The advantages are :
Reduction in Marketing Time: From the time you make the decision to employ our services until auction day is usually 30 to 45 days, depending upon the property. Even in good markets, this compares favorably with traditional sales methods. In good markets and low markets, auctions allow you to get your property sold quickly and efficiently.
Reduction in Costs of Ownership: Once the decision is made to sell, the quicker the process can be accomplished the better. Typical costs associated with the ownership of real property can be drastically reduced such as maintenance, insurance, taxes, and interest. Many times, over the course of traditional listings, market conditions change affecting the price a willing and able purchaser will pay. Even in good markets, interest rates fluctuate, thereby causing a risk in the marketplace, over which you have not control.
Targeting Qualified Buyers: Most of the time, an auction finds success because the company you have chosen understands the best means to reach a targeted audience. Marketing your property to those incapable of making the decision to purchase or lacking the ability to purchase, is a genuine waste of time and money. At the same time, your auction cannot be kept a secret, advertising is essential to produce results. Each auction marketing campaign is carefully planned and thought out to insure all possible prospects become aware of your property and the opportunity afforded by the auction scheduled.
Reduction in Marketing Time & Absorption: We have successfully offered and sold many properties for lenders, developers, corporations, and others with a need or desire to liquidate communities. This can include developed subdivision lots, completed residential units, acreage, or nearly any other type of real estate. At auctions, it is possible to accomplish in one day what may have taken months or years to sell out using traditional methods. Auction marketing is compacted into a well-defined time frame. This reduces holding costs, interest charges, expensive marketing campaigns, and risks associated with the marketplace.
Negotiations Between Sellers and Buyers Defined: At an auction, all negotiations between sellers and bidders are carried out while the auctioneer is at the podium. Offers to purchase are made under predetermined conditions which bidders have agreed to comply with. This eliminates the need for complicated negotiations, offers, counter offers, and confusion. Through the process of competitive bidding, final prices are established.
Predetermined Terms and Conditions of Sale: At an auction, the terms of sale are determined in advance of the event. In most cases, your property will be offered in "As-Is" condition requiring interested parties to conclude any inspections they deem necessary before the first bid is made. Upon the conclusion of the auction, the top bidder will be required to execute a simple contract of sale requiring a non refundable deposit of usually 10% of the purchase price. In most cases, the contract will require closing 30 to 45 days following the auction. While many purchasers obtain financing on properties purchased at auctions, the contract is not contingent upon the ability to obtain financing. Many purchasing at auctions are pre-qualified by mortgage lenders or have the ability to close without financing. This allows you to leave the auction knowing your property has sold.
Achievement of Fair Market Value: Through the process of competitive bidding, you can be assured your property brings a fair price. This is contrasted with traditional listings as the final price is achieved as qualified bidders react to your property. At an auction, you are able to observe what others are willing to pay for your property. It is one thing to obtain a current appraisal on your property or hear what brokers think your property is worth, yet these are really not that important. The price a willing, qualified purchaser is willing to pay on a date certain is really what matters. This is the price achieved at professionally conducted auctions and favorable compares to the written definition of current market value. Sometimes auctions are equated to negative financial events and, certainly, some properties typically offered are troubled. Many times, properties become stale having been on the market for long periods of time. Sometimes, they become shopped out, passed from one broker to another without a sale. Some bidders attend auctions expecting to pay "pennies on the dollar." The reality is most properties, when offered by professional auction companies, bring prices that are fair to the seller and purchaser.
Selling on Your Time: In most traditional listing agreements, there is no time frame stated for the sale of your property. It could take as little as one day or as long as the listing lasts. At auction, you set the date and time the property will be sold. Auction advertising and promotion is designed to attract the attention of qualified bidders who must act quickly as there is an established date and time for the event. This sends a powerful message - you are motivated and committed to selling.
Tuesday, November 29, 2011
Saturday, November 26, 2011
B2B ( Business-to-Business) ^....^ ~
On the Internet, B2B (business-to-business), also known as e-biz, is the exchange of products, services, or information between businesses rather than between businesses and consumers. Although early interest centered on the growth of retailing on the Internet (sometimes called e-tailing), forecasts are that B2B revenue will far exceed business-to-consumers (B2C) revenue in the near future. According to studies published in early 2000, the money volume of B2B exceeds that of e-tailing by 10 to 1. Over the next five years, B2B is expected to have a compound annual growth of 41%. The Gartner Group estimates B2B revenue worldwide to be $7.29 trillion dollars by 2004. In early 2000, the volume of investment in B2B by venture capitalists was reported to be accelerating sharply although profitable B2B sites were not yet easy to find.
B2B Web sites can be sorted into:
Company Web sites, since the target audience for many company Web sites is other companies and their employees. Company sites can be thought of as round-the-clock mini-trade exhibits.
Web site serves as the entrance to an exclusive extranet available only to customers or registered site users. Some company Web sites sell directly from the site, effectively e-tailing to other businesses.
Product supply and procurement exchanges, where a company purchasing agent can shop for supplies from vendors, request proposals, and, in some cases, bid to make a purchase at a desired price. Sometimes referred to as e-procurement sites, some serve a range of industries and others focus on a niche market.
Specialized or vertical industry portals which provide a "subWeb" of information, product listings, discussion groups, and other features. These vertical portal sites have a broader purpose than the procurement sites (although they may also support buying and selling).
Brokering sites that act as an intermediary between someone wanting a product or service and potential providers. Equipment leasing is an example.
Information sites (sometimes known as infomediary), which provide information about a particular industry for its companies and their employees. These include specialized search sites and trade and industry standards organization sites.
Many B2B sites may seem to fall into more than one of these groups. Models for B2B sites are still evolving.
Another type of B2B enterprise is software for building B2B Web sites, including site building tools and templates, database, and methodologies as well as transaction software.
B2B is e-commerce between businesses. An earlier and much more limited kind of online B2B prior to the Internet was Electronic Data Interchange (EDI), which is still widely used.
B2B Web sites can be sorted into:
Company Web sites, since the target audience for many company Web sites is other companies and their employees. Company sites can be thought of as round-the-clock mini-trade exhibits.
Web site serves as the entrance to an exclusive extranet available only to customers or registered site users. Some company Web sites sell directly from the site, effectively e-tailing to other businesses.
Product supply and procurement exchanges, where a company purchasing agent can shop for supplies from vendors, request proposals, and, in some cases, bid to make a purchase at a desired price. Sometimes referred to as e-procurement sites, some serve a range of industries and others focus on a niche market.
Specialized or vertical industry portals which provide a "subWeb" of information, product listings, discussion groups, and other features. These vertical portal sites have a broader purpose than the procurement sites (although they may also support buying and selling).
Brokering sites that act as an intermediary between someone wanting a product or service and potential providers. Equipment leasing is an example.
Information sites (sometimes known as infomediary), which provide information about a particular industry for its companies and their employees. These include specialized search sites and trade and industry standards organization sites.
Many B2B sites may seem to fall into more than one of these groups. Models for B2B sites are still evolving.
Another type of B2B enterprise is software for building B2B Web sites, including site building tools and templates, database, and methodologies as well as transaction software.
B2B is e-commerce between businesses. An earlier and much more limited kind of online B2B prior to the Internet was Electronic Data Interchange (EDI), which is still widely used.
BRICK and MORTAR / BRICK and CLICKS
What Does Brick and Mortar Mean?
A traditional "street-side" business that deals with its customers face to face in an office or store that the business owns or rents. The local grocery store and the corner bank are examples of "brick and mortar" companies. Brick and mortar businesses can find it difficult to compete with web-based businesses because the latter usually have lower operating costs and greater flexibility.
What Does Brick and Click Mean?
It refers to businesses that offer online services via the Web as well as the traditional retail outlets (offline) staffed by people. Coined in 1999 by David Pottruck, co-CEO of the Charles Schwab brokerage firm, it refers to running the two divisions in a cooperative and integrated manner where they both support and benefit from each other.
A traditional "street-side" business that deals with its customers face to face in an office or store that the business owns or rents. The local grocery store and the corner bank are examples of "brick and mortar" companies. Brick and mortar businesses can find it difficult to compete with web-based businesses because the latter usually have lower operating costs and greater flexibility.
What Does Brick and Click Mean?
It refers to businesses that offer online services via the Web as well as the traditional retail outlets (offline) staffed by people. Coined in 1999 by David Pottruck, co-CEO of the Charles Schwab brokerage firm, it refers to running the two divisions in a cooperative and integrated manner where they both support and benefit from each other.
Thursday, November 24, 2011
COMPUTER VIRUS.....
A computer virus is a small software program that spreads from one computer to another computer and that interferes with computer operation. A computer virus may corrupt or delete data on a computer, use an e-mail program to spread the virus to other computers, or even delete everything on the hard disk.
Computer viruses are most easily spread by attachments in e-mail messages or by instant messaging messages. Therefore, you must never open an e-mail attachment unless you know who sent the message or unless you are expecting the e-mail attachment. Computer viruses can be disguised as attachments of funny images, greeting cards, or audio and video files. Computer viruses also spread by using downloads on the Internet. Computer viruses can be hidden in pirated software or in other files or programs that you may download. Symptoms that may be the result of ordinary Windows functions.A computer virus infection may cause the following problems:
Note: These problems may also occur because of ordinary Windows functions or problems in Windows that are not caused by a computer virus.
Windows does not start even though you have not made any system changes or even though you have not installed or removed any programs.Windows does not start because certain important system files are missing. Additionally, you receive an error message that lists the missing files.
The computer sometimes starts as expected. However, at other times, the computer stops responding before the desktop icons and the taskbar appear.The computer runs very slowly. Additionally, the computer takes longer than expected to start.You receive out-of-memory error messages even though the computer has sufficient RAM.New programs are installed incorrectly.
Windows spontaneously restarts unexpectedly.Programs that used to run stop responding frequently. Even if you remove and reinstall the programs, the issue continues to occur.A disk utility such as Scandisk reports multiple serious disk errors.A partition disappears.The computer always stops responding when you try to use Microsoft Office products.You cannot start Windows Task Manager.Antivirus software indicates that a computer virus is present.
Symptoms of A Computer Virus
If you suspect or confirm that your computer is infected with a computer virus, obtain the current antivirus software. The following are some primary indicators that a computer may be infected:
The computer runs slower than usual.
The computer stops responding, or it locks up frequently.
The computer crashes, and then it restarts every few minutes.
The computer restarts on its own. Additionally, the computer does not run as usual.
Applications on the computer do not work correctly.
Disks or disk drives are inaccessible.
You cannot print items correctly.
You see unusual error messages.
You see distorted menus and dialog boxes.
There is a double extension on an attachment that you recently opened, such as a .jpg, .vbs, .gif, or .exe. extension.An antivirus program is disabled for no reason. Additionally, the antivirus program cannot be restarted.An antivirus program cannot be installed on the computer, or the antivirus program will not run.New icons appear on the desktop that you did not put there, or the icons are not associated with any recently installed programs.
Strange sounds or music plays from the speakers unexpectedly.
A program disappears from the computer even though you did not intentionally remove the program.
Note These are common signs of infection. However, these signs may also be caused by hardware or software problems that have nothing to do with a computer virus. Unless you run the Microsoft Malicious Software Removal Tool, and then you install industry-standard, up-to-date antivirus software on your computer, you cannot be certain whether a computer is infected with a computer virus or not.
Symptoms of Worms and Trojan Horse Viruses in E-Mail Messages
When a computer virus infects e-mail messages or infects other files on a computer, you may notice the following symptoms:The infected file may make copies of itself. This behavior may use up all the free space on the hard disk.
A copy of the infected file may be sent to all the addresses in an e-mail address list.
The computer virus may reformat the hard disk. This behavior will delete files and programs.
The computer virus may install hidden programs, such as pirated software. This pirated software may then be distributed and sold from the computer.The computer virus may reduce security. This could enable intruders to remotely access the computer or the network.
You receive an e-mail message that has a strange attachment. When you open the attachment, dialog boxes appear, or a sudden degradation in system performance occurs.Someone tells you that they have recently received e-mail messages from you that contained attached files that you did not send. The files that are attached to the e-mail messages have extensions such as .exe, .bat, .scr, and .vbs extensions.
What is Spyware?
Spyware can install on your computer without your knowledge. These programs can change your computer’s configuration or collect advertising data and personal information. Spyware can track internet searching habits and possibly redirect web site activity.
Symptoms of Spyware
When a computer becomes affected by Spyware, the following may result:
Slow internet connection.
Changing your web browser’s home page.
Loss of internet connectivity.
Failure to open some programs, including security software.
Unable to visit specific websites, which may include redirecting you to another one.
How to remove a computer virus and spyware.
Even for an expert, removing a computer virus or spyware can be a difficult task without the help of computer malicious software removal tools. Some computer viruses and other unwanted softwarereinstall themselves after the viruses and spyware have been detected and removed. Fortunately, by updating the computer and by using malicious software removal tools, you can help permanently remove unwanted software.
To remove a computer virus and other malicious software, follow these steps:
Install the latest updates from Microsoft Update:
For Windows Vista and Windows 7:
Click the Pearl (Start) button, then type Windows Update in the search box.
In the results area, click Windows Update.
Click Check for Updates.
Follow the instructions to download and install the latest Windows Updates.
For Windows XP:
Click Start, then click Run.
Type sysdm.cpl and press the Enter key.
Click the Automatic Updates tab and choose the Automatic (recommended) option.
Click OK.
Use the Microsoft Safety Scanner
Microsoft offers a free online tool that will scan and remove potential threats from your computer. To perform the scan, visit: http://www.microsoft.com/security/scanner/
Install and run Microsoft Security Essentials
Microsoft offers a free malicious removal program; Microsoft Security Essentials that will also help protect your computer from being infected. To install Microsoft Security Essentials, follow the steps below:
Go to the Microsoft Security Essentials website at: http://windows.microsoft.com/en-US/windows/products/security-essentials
Click Download Now.
If your browser prompts you to save or run the file, click Run.
Follow the steps to install Microsoft Security Essentials.
After installation, restart your computer and open Microsoft Security Essentials.
On the Home tab, choose the Full scan option, and then click Scan now.
For more information about how to remove a computer virus, visit the following Microsoft Web site: http://www.microsoft.com/protect/computer/viruses/remove.mspx
How to Protect Your Computer Against Viruses
To protect your computer against viruses, follow these steps:
Turn on the firewall.
For information on how to turn on your firewall with Windows XP, visit: http://support.microsoft.com/kb/283673
For information on how to turn on your firewall with Windows Vista, visit: http://windows.microsoft.com/en-US/windows-vista/Turn-Windows-Firewall-on-or-off
For information on how to turn on your firewall with Windows 7, visit: http://windows.microsoft.com/en-US/windows7/Turn-Windows-Firewall-on-or-off
Keep your computer up-to-date.
For information on how to set Automatic Updates in Windows, visit: http://support.microsoft.com/kb/306525
Install Microsoft Security Essentials and keep it up to date.
For more information on how to install and use Microsoft Security Essentials, visit: http://windows.microsoft.com/en-US/windows/products/security-essentials
For more information about how to protect a computer against viruses, visit the following Microsoft Web site:
http://www.microsoft.com/protect/computer/default.mspx
What are Rogue Virus Alerts?
Rogue security software programs will try to make you think that your machine is infected by a virus and usually prompt you to download and/or buy a removal product. The names of these products usually contain words like “Antivirus,” “Shield,” “Security,” Protection,” “Fixer,” so they appear to be legitimate. They will often run immediately when downloaded, or the next time your computer starts up. Rogue security software can prevent applications from opening, including Internet Explorer, and may display legitimate and very important Windows files as infections. Some typical error messages or pop ups you may receive may contain:
Warning!
Your computer is infected!
This computer is infected by spyware and adware.
A good sign that the software is not beneficial to you is that when you try to close the window it will continually pop up warnings similar to:
Are you sure you want to navigate from this page?
Your computer is infected! They can cause data lost and file corruption and need to be treated as soon as possible. Press CANCEL to prevent it. Return to System Security and download it to secure your PC.
Press OK to Continue or Cancel to stay on the current page.
It is strongly recommended that you don't download or purchase any kind of software that advertises in this manner.
Computer viruses are most easily spread by attachments in e-mail messages or by instant messaging messages. Therefore, you must never open an e-mail attachment unless you know who sent the message or unless you are expecting the e-mail attachment. Computer viruses can be disguised as attachments of funny images, greeting cards, or audio and video files. Computer viruses also spread by using downloads on the Internet. Computer viruses can be hidden in pirated software or in other files or programs that you may download. Symptoms that may be the result of ordinary Windows functions.A computer virus infection may cause the following problems:
Note: These problems may also occur because of ordinary Windows functions or problems in Windows that are not caused by a computer virus.
Windows does not start even though you have not made any system changes or even though you have not installed or removed any programs.Windows does not start because certain important system files are missing. Additionally, you receive an error message that lists the missing files.
The computer sometimes starts as expected. However, at other times, the computer stops responding before the desktop icons and the taskbar appear.The computer runs very slowly. Additionally, the computer takes longer than expected to start.You receive out-of-memory error messages even though the computer has sufficient RAM.New programs are installed incorrectly.
Windows spontaneously restarts unexpectedly.Programs that used to run stop responding frequently. Even if you remove and reinstall the programs, the issue continues to occur.A disk utility such as Scandisk reports multiple serious disk errors.A partition disappears.The computer always stops responding when you try to use Microsoft Office products.You cannot start Windows Task Manager.Antivirus software indicates that a computer virus is present.
Symptoms of A Computer Virus
If you suspect or confirm that your computer is infected with a computer virus, obtain the current antivirus software. The following are some primary indicators that a computer may be infected:
The computer runs slower than usual.
The computer stops responding, or it locks up frequently.
The computer crashes, and then it restarts every few minutes.
The computer restarts on its own. Additionally, the computer does not run as usual.
Applications on the computer do not work correctly.
Disks or disk drives are inaccessible.
You cannot print items correctly.
You see unusual error messages.
You see distorted menus and dialog boxes.
There is a double extension on an attachment that you recently opened, such as a .jpg, .vbs, .gif, or .exe. extension.An antivirus program is disabled for no reason. Additionally, the antivirus program cannot be restarted.An antivirus program cannot be installed on the computer, or the antivirus program will not run.New icons appear on the desktop that you did not put there, or the icons are not associated with any recently installed programs.
Strange sounds or music plays from the speakers unexpectedly.
A program disappears from the computer even though you did not intentionally remove the program.
Note These are common signs of infection. However, these signs may also be caused by hardware or software problems that have nothing to do with a computer virus. Unless you run the Microsoft Malicious Software Removal Tool, and then you install industry-standard, up-to-date antivirus software on your computer, you cannot be certain whether a computer is infected with a computer virus or not.
Symptoms of Worms and Trojan Horse Viruses in E-Mail Messages
When a computer virus infects e-mail messages or infects other files on a computer, you may notice the following symptoms:The infected file may make copies of itself. This behavior may use up all the free space on the hard disk.
A copy of the infected file may be sent to all the addresses in an e-mail address list.
The computer virus may reformat the hard disk. This behavior will delete files and programs.
The computer virus may install hidden programs, such as pirated software. This pirated software may then be distributed and sold from the computer.The computer virus may reduce security. This could enable intruders to remotely access the computer or the network.
You receive an e-mail message that has a strange attachment. When you open the attachment, dialog boxes appear, or a sudden degradation in system performance occurs.Someone tells you that they have recently received e-mail messages from you that contained attached files that you did not send. The files that are attached to the e-mail messages have extensions such as .exe, .bat, .scr, and .vbs extensions.
What is Spyware?
Spyware can install on your computer without your knowledge. These programs can change your computer’s configuration or collect advertising data and personal information. Spyware can track internet searching habits and possibly redirect web site activity.
Symptoms of Spyware
When a computer becomes affected by Spyware, the following may result:
Slow internet connection.
Changing your web browser’s home page.
Loss of internet connectivity.
Failure to open some programs, including security software.
Unable to visit specific websites, which may include redirecting you to another one.
How to remove a computer virus and spyware.
Even for an expert, removing a computer virus or spyware can be a difficult task without the help of computer malicious software removal tools. Some computer viruses and other unwanted softwarereinstall themselves after the viruses and spyware have been detected and removed. Fortunately, by updating the computer and by using malicious software removal tools, you can help permanently remove unwanted software.
To remove a computer virus and other malicious software, follow these steps:
Install the latest updates from Microsoft Update:
For Windows Vista and Windows 7:
Click the Pearl (Start) button, then type Windows Update in the search box.
In the results area, click Windows Update.
Click Check for Updates.
Follow the instructions to download and install the latest Windows Updates.
For Windows XP:
Click Start, then click Run.
Type sysdm.cpl and press the Enter key.
Click the Automatic Updates tab and choose the Automatic (recommended) option.
Click OK.
Use the Microsoft Safety Scanner
Microsoft offers a free online tool that will scan and remove potential threats from your computer. To perform the scan, visit: http://www.microsoft.com/security/scanner/
Install and run Microsoft Security Essentials
Microsoft offers a free malicious removal program; Microsoft Security Essentials that will also help protect your computer from being infected. To install Microsoft Security Essentials, follow the steps below:
Go to the Microsoft Security Essentials website at: http://windows.microsoft.com/en-US/windows/products/security-essentials
Click Download Now.
If your browser prompts you to save or run the file, click Run.
Follow the steps to install Microsoft Security Essentials.
After installation, restart your computer and open Microsoft Security Essentials.
On the Home tab, choose the Full scan option, and then click Scan now.
For more information about how to remove a computer virus, visit the following Microsoft Web site: http://www.microsoft.com/protect/computer/viruses/remove.mspx
How to Protect Your Computer Against Viruses
To protect your computer against viruses, follow these steps:
Turn on the firewall.
For information on how to turn on your firewall with Windows XP, visit: http://support.microsoft.com/kb/283673
For information on how to turn on your firewall with Windows Vista, visit: http://windows.microsoft.com/en-US/windows-vista/Turn-Windows-Firewall-on-or-off
For information on how to turn on your firewall with Windows 7, visit: http://windows.microsoft.com/en-US/windows7/Turn-Windows-Firewall-on-or-off
Keep your computer up-to-date.
For information on how to set Automatic Updates in Windows, visit: http://support.microsoft.com/kb/306525
Install Microsoft Security Essentials and keep it up to date.
For more information on how to install and use Microsoft Security Essentials, visit: http://windows.microsoft.com/en-US/windows/products/security-essentials
For more information about how to protect a computer against viruses, visit the following Microsoft Web site:
http://www.microsoft.com/protect/computer/default.mspx
What are Rogue Virus Alerts?
Rogue security software programs will try to make you think that your machine is infected by a virus and usually prompt you to download and/or buy a removal product. The names of these products usually contain words like “Antivirus,” “Shield,” “Security,” Protection,” “Fixer,” so they appear to be legitimate. They will often run immediately when downloaded, or the next time your computer starts up. Rogue security software can prevent applications from opening, including Internet Explorer, and may display legitimate and very important Windows files as infections. Some typical error messages or pop ups you may receive may contain:
Warning!
Your computer is infected!
This computer is infected by spyware and adware.
A good sign that the software is not beneficial to you is that when you try to close the window it will continually pop up warnings similar to:
Are you sure you want to navigate from this page?
Your computer is infected! They can cause data lost and file corruption and need to be treated as soon as possible. Press CANCEL to prevent it. Return to System Security and download it to secure your PC.
Press OK to Continue or Cancel to stay on the current page.
It is strongly recommended that you don't download or purchase any kind of software that advertises in this manner.
Tuesday, November 22, 2011
SUPERCOMPUTER.
A supercomputer is a computer at the frontline of current processing capacity, particularly speed of calculation.
Supercomputers are used for highly calculation-intensive tasks such as problems including quantum physics, weather forecasting, climate research, molecular modeling (computing the structures and properties of chemical compounds, biological macromolecules, polymers, and crystals), and physical simulations (such as simulation of airplanes in wind tunnels, simulation of the detonation of nuclear weapons, and research into nuclear fusion).
Supercomputers were introduced in the 1960s and were designed primarily by Seymour Cray at Control Data Corporation (CDC), which led the market into the 1970s until Cray left to form his own company, Cray Research. He then took over the supercomputer market with his new designs, holding the top spot in supercomputing for five years (1985–1990). In the 1980s a large number of smaller competitors entered the market, in parallel to the creation of the minicomputer market a decade earlier, but many of these disappeared in the mid-1990s "supercomputer market crash".
Today, supercomputers are typically one-of-a-kind custom designs produced by traditional companies such as Cray, IBM and Hewlett-Packard, who had purchased many of the 1980s companies to gain their experience. Currently, Japan's K computer, built by Fujitsu in Kobe, Japan is the fastest in the world. It is three times faster than previous one to hold that title, the Tianhe-1A supercomputer located in China.
The term supercomputer itself is rather fluid, and the speed of earlier "supercomputers" tends to become typical of future ordinary computers. CDC's early machines were simply very fast scalar processors, some ten times the speed of the fastest machines offered by other companies. In the 1970s most supercomputers were dedicated to running a vector processor, and many of the newer players developed their own such processors at a lower price to enter the market. The early and mid-1980s saw machines with a modest number of vector processors working in parallel to become the standard.
Typical numbers of processors were in the range of four to sixteen. In the later 1980s and 1990s, attention turned from vector processors to massive parallel processing systems with thousands of "ordinary" CPUs, some being off the shelf units and others being custom designs (see Transputer by instance). Today, parallel designs are based on "off the shelf" server-class microprocessors, such as the PowerPC, Opteron, or Xeon, and coprocessors like NVIDIA Tesla GPGPUs, AMD GPUs, IBM Cell, FPGAs. Most modern supercomputers are now highly-tuned computer clusters using commodity processors combined with custom interconnects.
Relevant here is the distinction between capability computing and capacity computing, as defined by Graham et al. Capability computing is typically thought of as using the maximum computing power to solve a large problem in the shortest amount of time. Often a capability system is able to solve a problem of a size or complexity that no other computer can. Capacity computing in contrast is typically thought of as using efficient cost-effective computing power to solve somewhat large problems or many small problems or to prepare for a run on a capability system.
Supercomputers are used for highly calculation-intensive tasks such as problems including quantum physics, weather forecasting, climate research, molecular modeling (computing the structures and properties of chemical compounds, biological macromolecules, polymers, and crystals), and physical simulations (such as simulation of airplanes in wind tunnels, simulation of the detonation of nuclear weapons, and research into nuclear fusion).
Supercomputers were introduced in the 1960s and were designed primarily by Seymour Cray at Control Data Corporation (CDC), which led the market into the 1970s until Cray left to form his own company, Cray Research. He then took over the supercomputer market with his new designs, holding the top spot in supercomputing for five years (1985–1990). In the 1980s a large number of smaller competitors entered the market, in parallel to the creation of the minicomputer market a decade earlier, but many of these disappeared in the mid-1990s "supercomputer market crash".
Today, supercomputers are typically one-of-a-kind custom designs produced by traditional companies such as Cray, IBM and Hewlett-Packard, who had purchased many of the 1980s companies to gain their experience. Currently, Japan's K computer, built by Fujitsu in Kobe, Japan is the fastest in the world. It is three times faster than previous one to hold that title, the Tianhe-1A supercomputer located in China.
The term supercomputer itself is rather fluid, and the speed of earlier "supercomputers" tends to become typical of future ordinary computers. CDC's early machines were simply very fast scalar processors, some ten times the speed of the fastest machines offered by other companies. In the 1970s most supercomputers were dedicated to running a vector processor, and many of the newer players developed their own such processors at a lower price to enter the market. The early and mid-1980s saw machines with a modest number of vector processors working in parallel to become the standard.
Typical numbers of processors were in the range of four to sixteen. In the later 1980s and 1990s, attention turned from vector processors to massive parallel processing systems with thousands of "ordinary" CPUs, some being off the shelf units and others being custom designs (see Transputer by instance). Today, parallel designs are based on "off the shelf" server-class microprocessors, such as the PowerPC, Opteron, or Xeon, and coprocessors like NVIDIA Tesla GPGPUs, AMD GPUs, IBM Cell, FPGAs. Most modern supercomputers are now highly-tuned computer clusters using commodity processors combined with custom interconnects.
Relevant here is the distinction between capability computing and capacity computing, as defined by Graham et al. Capability computing is typically thought of as using the maximum computing power to solve a large problem in the shortest amount of time. Often a capability system is able to solve a problem of a size or complexity that no other computer can. Capacity computing in contrast is typically thought of as using efficient cost-effective computing power to solve somewhat large problems or many small problems or to prepare for a run on a capability system.
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